Lithuania in the Russian Empire: Uprisings and National Revival

• The third partition in 1795 ended the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
• Former Lithuanian territories were incorporated into Russian governorates; their administrative borders changed several times.
• Uprisings against Russian rule took place in 1830–1831 and 1863–1864.
• The so-called Lithuanian press ban is usually associated with the years 1864 to 1904.
• The early restrictions developed gradually; sources distinguish initial measures in 1864 from later formal bans in 1865.
• Knygnešiai printed Lithuanian books abroad or smuggled them across the border and distributed them in the country.
• In 1905, the Great Seimas of Vilnius called for autonomous self-government within the Russian Empire.
• On February 16, 1918, the Council of Lithuania restored the country's independence.

With the third partition, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth disappeared from the political map. Russia did not incorporate the conquered territories into its administration as a single entity called “Lithuania.” Former lands of the Grand Duchy were divided among several governorates, whose names and jurisdictions changed repeatedly. After 1795, some of the former Lithuanian territories became part of Minsk Governorate, while other areas were initially assigned to Vilnius and Slonim Governorates.

This arrangement did not last. Vilnius and Slonim Governorates were merged in 1797 and divided again in 1801. In 1819, Palanga and its surroundings were transferred to Courland Governorate; in 1843, Kaunas Governorate was created from parts of Vilnius Governorate. During the press restrictions of the late nineteenth century, areas of present-day Lithuania belonged to Vilnius, Kaunas and Suwałki Governorates. Historical maps therefore show different administrative regions from a map of the modern state. Visitors exploring cities should not automatically assume that their present-day locations correspond to the provincial borders of that time.

The political background goes back well before 1795: the medieval state-building under Mindaugas was followed by the expanding Grand Duchy during the time of Gediminas. The later Union of Lublin united Poland and Lithuania in a common state, before the partitions created a new political order.

In the nineteenth century, people in Lithuania repeatedly resisted Russian rule. The uprising of 1830–1831 was unsuccessful; another major uprising followed in 1863–1864. People from the former territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took part in both. After the later uprising, Russian authorities tightened their control over schools, printing houses and public communication. The repression affected different regions and population groups in different ways.

The authorities regarded writing and education as part of the political order. Restrictions on printing were therefore more than a technical regulation for publishers: they limited where Lithuanian books could be produced, sold and distributed. At the same time, a press ban did not mean that the Lithuanian language disappeared from everyday speech. Families, clergy and teachers continued to use Lithuanian; what was particularly restricted was legal access to printed literature in the Latin alphabet.

Brief accounts often say that the Lithuanian press ban lasted from 1864 to 1904. However, there are several possible reference points for its beginning. The Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania describes November 23, 1864, as the start of the ban on secular Lithuanian publications in Latin letters. The Lithuanian Parliament’s timeline gives September 23, 1865, as the date of the ban; a National Library article also documents a circular from the Minister of the Interior dated October 5, 1865, which more broadly prohibited the printing, sale and distribution of Lithuanian and Samogitian texts in the Latin or Polish alphabet.

The different dates refer to successive steps in an expanding administrative policy, not necessarily to the same decree. The precise short version is therefore: restrictions began in 1864, were extended in 1865 and were lifted in 1904. They targeted publications in specific scripts; they did not ban speaking Lithuanian. When comparing the date in a book with one on a historical plaque, readers can thus see that different sources choose different stages of the ban as its starting point.

While Lithuanian printing was heavily restricted in the empire, books and newspapers were produced outside the affected provinces. Printing houses in Prussian Lithuania and elsewhere published Lithuanian texts, which were smuggled across the border and distributed in the country. The Knygnešiai—literally, something like “book carriers,” often called book smugglers—organised this dangerous distribution network. Those caught helping faced fines, imprisonment or exile. Clergy, teachers and families kept books and passed them on; their motives ranged from a desire for religious texts to a commitment to language and education.

The underground press helped build a modern Lithuanian cultural and language movement. Among its best-known publications were the periodicals “Aušra” and “Varpas,” which appeared in the decades before independence. The work of the book carriers involved more than dramatic border crossings: they needed printers, publishers, safe storage places and readers who passed texts along through small networks. One possible stop for travellers wishing to explore this subject further is the J. Tumas-Vaižgantas and Book Smugglers Museum in Ustronė. The cultural heritage website describes the museum at the Ustronė estate; current visitor information should be checked separately before travelling.

The sights of Vilnius and museums in Lithuania offer a broader framework for exploring cities, collections and different eras. Those who prefer to approach history through individual biographies can find further examples from different periods in the overview of famous people from Lithuania. Keep in mind that not every museum necessarily has a particular exhibition on display permanently.

When the ban was lifted in 1904, political conflicts did not automatically come to an end. In December 1905, the Great Seimas of Vilnius convened and called for autonomy for Lithuania, with its own parliament within the Russian Empire. This was a major step, but not yet a declaration of independence. The First World War and the dissolution of the empires subsequently changed the political possibilities.

On February 16, 1918, members of the Council of Lithuania signed the declaration of independence. This proclaimed the restoration of an independent state. The following years of independent state-building are covered on the page about the Republic of Lithuania, 1918–1940. A separate overview covers the later period of occupation, resistance and the restoration of freedom: Occupation and regaining independence.

When did a large part of Lithuania come under Russian rule?

Following the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, particularly the third partition in 1795, Russia incorporated former territories of the Grand Duchy into governorates. Their names and borders changed several times afterward.

Why is the press ban dated to 1864 in some accounts and 1865 in others?

The restrictions were introduced gradually. The National Library identifies an early step in November 1864; the Parliament and subsequent administrative measures place the formal bans in 1865. Both years mark different stages.

What exactly was not allowed to be printed?

The tsarist administration restricted Lithuanian and Samogitian publications in the Latin alphabet and also controlled their sale and distribution. Speaking Lithuanian was not prohibited.

Who were the Knygnešiai?

They were book carriers and distributors who brought Lithuanian publications from abroad across the border and circulated them clandestinely. If caught, they faced punishment, imprisonment or exile.

What did the Great Seimas of Vilnius call for in 1905?

It called for autonomy and self-government for Lithuania within the Russian Empire. The declaration of an independent state followed only on February 16, 1918.